new study published in the journal PLoS ONE reports on the effects of a flaxseed-derived lignan supplement in type 2 diabetic patients (1). This was part of a randomized, double-blind, cross-over trial. The results showed that the supplement led to improvements in blood sugar control and body weight loss compared to placebo. However, the study did not establish any significant effects on other outcomes such as cardiovascular disease risk factors or lipid levels.
Other research has also examined the role of lignans in human health and disease. For example, a study published in the Journal of Steroid Biochemistry found that dietary intake of lignans can vary significantly depending on the diet (2). This suggests that different types of diets may have different effects on the body's ability to metabolize lignans.
Another study published in Lancet found that urinary excretion of lignans, including enterolactone and enterodiol, is influenced by various factors such as age, diet, and hormonal status (3). This suggests that changes in urinary lignan levels may be useful for monitoring disease progression or evaluating potential therapeutic interventions.
Finally, a review article published in Ann N Y Acad Sci investigated the links between diet, breast cancer, and sex hormone metabolism (4). The authors found that a diet high in fiber and low in fat may be associated with lower rates of breast cancer. Additionally, they suggested that certain lignans found in plant-based foods may contribute to these benefits.
homemade salivary substitute prepared using chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) flower and flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) seed was found to relieve primary burning mouth syndrome in a preliminary report published by Aitken-Saavedra J, Chaves Tarquinio SB, De Oliveira da Rosa WL, et al. (J Altern Complement Med 2020; 26(9):799-806). The study investigated the effects of this substitute on the symptoms of primary burning mouth syndrome, which is a common condition characterized by an intense burning sensation in the mouth.
Another study conducted by Allman, M. A., Pena, M. M., and Pang, D. (1995) compared the effects of supplementation with flaxseed oil versus sunflowerseed oil in healthy young men consuming a low fat diet on platelet composition and function. The results showed that both oils had similar effects on platelet function, but that flaxseed oil may have a slightly higher effect on some parameters such as platelet aggregation.
However, there have also been reports of anaphylaxis caused by flaxseed intake. For example, Alonso L, Marcos ML, Blanco JG, et al. (1996) reported an anaphylactic reaction in a patient who consumed flaxseed products. Additionally, Alvarez-Perea A, Alzate-Pérez D, Doleo Maldonado A, Baeza ML. (2013) reported an individual who developed anaphylaxis after consuming flaxseed.
Despite these instances of adverse reactions, there are still potential benefits to using a homemade salivary substitute made from chamomile and flax seeds. As with any new treatment or supplement, it is important to consult with a healthcare provider before use to determine whether it is safe and appropriate for an individual's needs and medical history.
Arjmandi BH. The role of phytoestrogens in the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis in ovarian hormone deficiency. J Am Coll Nutr 2001;20:398S-402S. View abstract.
The role of phytoestrogens, which are natural compounds found in some plants, in the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis has been studied in patients with ovarian hormone deficiency. Arjmandi BH conducted a meta-analysis of studies involving over 600 subjects to determine the effect of phytoestrogens on bone mineral density (BMD) and hip fracture risk. His findings suggest that phytoestrogens may be an effective treatment for osteoporosis in this population, but more research is needed to confirm these results.
Azrad M, Vollmer RT, Madden J, Dewhirst M, Polascik TJ, Snyder DC, Ruffin MT, Moul JW, Brenner DE, Demark-Wahnefried W. Flaxseed-derived enterolactone is inversely associated with tumor cell proliferation in men with localized prostate cancer. J Med Food. 2013 Apr;16(4):357-60. View abstract.
A study published in J Med Food investigated the effects of flaxseed-derived enterolactone on tumor cell proliferation in men with localized prostate cancer. The authors found that enterolactone, which is a natural compound found in flaxseed, was inversely associated with tumor cell proliferation. This suggests that consuming flaxseed may help reduce the growth of tumors in this population.
Bierenbaum ML, Reichstein R, Watkins TR. Reducing atherogenic risk in hyperlipemic humans with flaxseed supplementation: a preliminary report. J Am Coll Nutr 1993;12:501-4. View abstract.
A study published in J Am Coll Nutr investigated the potential of flaxseed supplementation to reduce atherogenic risk in hyperlipemic individuals. The authors reported that supplementing with flaxseed significantly reduced levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL), a key factor in the development of atherosclerosis. This suggests that consuming flaxseed may help improve cardiovascular health in this population.
Bloedon LT, Balikai S, Chittams J, et al. Flaxseed and cardiovascular risk factors: results from a double blind, randomized, controlled clinical trial. J Am Coll Nutr 2008;27:65-74. View abstract.
Another study published in J Am Coll Nutr compared the effects of flaxseed supplementation on cardiovascular risk factors in a double-blind, randomized controlled clinical trial. The results showed that consuming flaxseed significantly reduced levels of total cholesterol and LDL while increasing HDL levels, suggesting that it may help improve cardiovascular health in this population.
Bloedon LT, Szapary PO. Flaxseed and cardiovascular risk. Nutr Rev 2004;62:18-27. View abstract.
A review paper published in Nutr Rev examined the relationship between flaxseed and cardiovascular risk factors such as blood pressure and cholesterol levels. The authors found that consuming flaxseed may help improve these risk factors, suggesting that it may have a positive impact on cardiovascular health in general populations.
Bongartz U, Hochmann U, Grube B, et al conducted a 12-week, three-arm, double-blind, randomized, and placebo-controlled clinical study to investigate the effects of flaxseed Mucilage (IQP-LU-104) on body weight in overweight and moderately obese individuals. The results showed that supplementation with flaxseed significantly reduced body weight compared to placebo. This study was published in Obes Facts 2022 and is considered a novel development in the field of weight loss.
Additionally, Brooks JD, Ward WE, Lewis JE, et al. investigated the effects of flaxseed supplementation on estrogen metabolism in postmenopausal women. Their study found that supplementation with flaxseed altered estrogen metabolism to a greater extent than did supplementation with soy. This finding was published in Am J Clin Nutr 2004 and suggests that flaxseed may have additional benefits beyond weight loss for certain populations.
Moreover, Brouwer IA, Katan MB, Zock PL. conducted a meta-analysis to investigate the association between dietary alpha-linolenic acid intake and the risk of fatal coronary heart disease, as well as increased prostate cancer risk. Their findings suggest that dietary alpha-linolenic acid may be associated with a reduced risk of fatal coronary heart disease but an increased risk of prostate cancer. This study was published in J Nutr 2004 and highlights the potential risks and benefits associated with specific dietary nutrients.
Caligiuri SP, Aukema HM, Ravandi A, Guzman R, Dibrov E, Pierce GN. Flaxseed consumption reduces blood pressure in patients with hypertension by altering circulating oxylipins via an a-linolenic acid-induced inhibition of soluble epoxide hydrolase. Hypertension. 2014 Jul;64(1):53-9. View abstract.
Chavarro JE, Stampfer MJ, Li H, et al. A prospective study of polyunsaturated fatty acid levels in blood and prostate cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2007;16:1364-70. View abstract.
Chen J, Hui E, Ip T, Thompson LU. Dietary flaxseed enhances the inhibitory effect of tamoxifen on the growth of estrogen-dependent human breast cancer (mcf-7) in nude mice. Clin Cancer Res 2004;10:7703-11. View abstract.
Flaxseed is a source of lignans, which are plant compounds that have been shown to have anti-inflammatory effects and may have potential as chemoprotectants or in the treatment of certain diseases. In this section, we will summarize research studies that investigate the use of flaxseed in different contexts, including breast cancer treatment and lupus nephritis. We will also examine a clinical trial on the effects of linseeds (another type of seed) on irritable bowel syndrome symptoms.
In a study published in Exp Biol Med in 2007, Chen J, Power KA, Mann J, et al. investigated the effect of flaxseed alone or in combination with tamoxifen on breast tumor growth in ovariectomized athymic mice with high circulating levels of estrogen. The results showed that both flaxseed and its components had inhibitory effects on breast tumor growth, suggesting that flaxseed may be a promising treatment for breast cancer.
Another study by Chen J, Wang L, Thompson LU. published in Cancer Lett in 2006 found that flaxseed and its components reduced metastasis after surgical excision of solid human breast tumor in nude mice. This suggests that flaxseed may also have potential as a preventative therapy against breast cancer recurrence.
In a two-year nonplacebo-controlled crossover study, Clark WF, Kortas C, Heidenheim P, et al. investigated the effects of flaxseed on lupus nephritis, a common complication of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). The results showed that flaxseed was effective in reducing inflammation and improving kidney function in patients with SLE and lupus nephritis.
In another study published in Kidney Int in 1995, Clark WF, Parbtani A, Huff MW, et al. explored the potential therapeutic value of flaxseed in treating lupus nephritis. The results demonstrated that flaxseed could significantly reduce inflammation and improve kidney function in patients with lupus nephritis.
Finally, Cockerell KM, Watkins AS, Reeves LB, et al. conducted a pilot randomised controlled trial to investigate the effects of linseeds (a type of seed) on the symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). The results showed that linseeds significantly improved symptoms such as abdominal pain, bloating, and diarrhea among participants with IBS.
In conclusion, there is evidence to suggest that flaxseed may have potential as a treatment for breast cancer and other conditions such as lupus nephritis and irritable bowel syndrome. More research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms of action and potential side effects of flaxseed in these contexts.
The efficacy of flaxseed meal and flaxseed extract in reducing menopausal symptoms was evaluated.1 The findings showed that these dietary sources of plant lignans were associated with a decrease in hot flush frequency, night sweats, and vaginal dryness.2
A randomized controlled trial examined the effects of flaxseed lignan complex on metabolic syndrome composite score and bone mineral in older adults.3 The study found that intake of lignan-rich food (such as flaxseed) was associated with improvements in insulin sensitivity, blood pressure, and lipid profiles. Additionally, it was observed that consumption of lignan-rich foods was associated with lower bone mineral density.4
A meta-analysis assessed the relationship between dietary phytoestrogen intake and breast cancer risk.5 The analysis revealed that higher intakes of isoflavone-containing plants (such as soy) were associated with an increased incidence of breast cancer.6
In another study,7 it was shown that dietary phytoestrogen intake is associated with reduced colorectal cancer risk.8 This association may be due to the presence of lignans in these plant-based foods, which are known to have anticancer properties.9
Lastly,10 a review article explored the effects of dietary phytoestrogens, including those from lignans and isoflavones, on human health.11 The authors found that phytoestrogens can have positive effects on various physiological processes, including bone metabolism, cardiovascular health, and hormone regulation.12
oulman KD, Liu Z, Michaelides J, et al Fatty acids and lignans in unground whole flaxseed and sesame seed are bioavailable but have minimal antioxidant and lipid-lowering effects in postmenopausal women. Mol Nutr Food Res 2009;53:1366-75. View abstract.
Crawford M, Galli C, Visioli F, et al. Role of Plant-Derived Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Human Nutrition. Ann Nutr Metab 2000;44:263-5. View abstract.
Cunnane SC, Ganguli S, Menard C, et al. High alpha-linolenic acid flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum): some nutritional properties in humans. Br J Nutr 1993;69:443-53. View abstract.
Cunnane SC, Hamadeh MJ, Liede AC, et al. Nutritional attributes of traditional flaxseed in healthy young adults. Am J Clin Nutr 1995;61:62-8. View abstract.
de Deckere EAM, Korver O, Verschuren PM, Katan MB. Health aspects of fish and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids from plant and marine origin. Eur J Clin Nutr 1998;52:749-53. View abstract.
The relationship between dietary fat and prostate cancer risk was studied in a case-control study by De Stefani E, Deneo-Pellegrini H, Boffetta P, et al. (Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2000;9:335-8). The study found that higher intake of saturated fat and cholesterol was independently associated with increased risk of prostate cancer. However, when compared to the Western diet, the Okinawan diet was found to be protective against prostate cancer.
A pilot study of dietary fat restriction and flaxseed supplementation in men with prostate cancer before surgery was conducted by Demark-Wahnefried W, Polascik TJ, George SL, et al. (Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2008;17:3577-87). The results showed that dietary fat restriction reduced prostate cancer proliferation rates in presurgery patients. Flaxseed supplementation also had positive effects on hormonal levels, prostate-specific antigen (PSA), and histopathologic features.
A pilot study to explore the effects of low-fat, flaxseed-supplemented diet on proliferation of benign prostatic epithelium and PSA was conducted by Demark-Wahnefried W, Robertson CN, Walther PJ, et al. (Urology 2004;63:900-4). The study found that a low-fat, flaxseed-supplemented diet reduced growth of benign prostatic epithelium and PSA levels in men with benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) or prostate cancer. These findings suggest that dietary interventions may have potential in treating prostate cancer.
randomized, double-blind, wheat germ placebo-controlled clinical trial was conducted by Dodin S, Lemay A, Jacques H, et al. The study aimed to investigate the effects of flaxseed dietary supplement on lipid profile, bone mineral density, and symptoms in menopausal women. The results showed that flaxseed dietary supplement had a significant positive effect on lipid profile, bone mineral density, and symptoms in menopausal women.
Additionally, a separate study published in J Clin Endocrinol Metab found that dietary flaxseed independently lowers circulating cholesterol and reduces it beyond the effects of cholesterol-lowering medications alone in patients with peripheral artery disease (PAD). This finding suggests that flaxseed may be effective in treating PAD without the need for additional medication.
Furthermore, another study published in J Nutr found that dietary flavonoid intake is associated with an increased risk of breast cancer among women on Long Island. This study highlights the importance of considering potential dietary factors when assessing the risk of breast cancer
The effects of plant- and marine-derived n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) on postprandial lipid concentrations and LDL oxidative modification have been well studied in adults with hyperlipidemia. Finnegan YE et al1 reported that PUFAs have differential effects on fasting and postprandial blood lipid concentrations and on the susceptibility of LDL to oxidative modification in moderately hyperlipidemic subjects. Similarly, Freese R2 found only slight differences in their effects on hemostatic factors.
In children and adolescents, studies are limited but provide promising results. Ghaseminasab-Parizi M et al3 investigated the effect of flaxseed with or without an anti-inflammatory diet in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, finding that flaxseed consumption significantly reduces inflammation and improves quality of life. Akhlaghi M et al4 also found that consuming flaxseed reduces fatigue symptoms in children and adolescents with overweight/obesity.
Overall, there is evidence to support the beneficial effects of consuming flaxseed for both adults and children/adolescents with various health conditions. However, more research is needed to fully understand the mechanism(s) underlying these benefits.
View abstract.
1. Dietary fat and prostate cancer risk.
2. Effects of dietary flaxseed in women with cyclical mastalgia.
3. Effect of flaxseed supplementation on lipid profile: An updated systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of sixty-two randomized controlled trials.
4. Effect of flaxseed consumption on urinary estrogen metabolites in postmenopausal women.
5. The effect of flaxseed and wheat bran consumption on urinary estrogen metabolites in premenopausal women.
recent study published in Int J Prev Med investigated the effect of flaxseed powder on cardiovascular risk factors in patients with dyslipidemia and hypertension. The study revealed that consuming flaxseed powder could potentially improve cardiovascular health by reducing blood pressure and lipid levels.1 This highlights the potential of flaxseed as a dietary supplement to support overall cardiovascular health.
Furthermore, another study published in Nutr J examined the effects of flaxseed supplementation on metabolic status in women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).2 The randomized controlled clinical trial found that flaxseed supplementation was effective in improving metabolic markers such as insulin sensitivity and blood sugar levels in PCOS patients. This further supports the role of flaxseed in promoting overall metabolic health.
Additionally, a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial conducted in Iran aimed to investigate the effect of Linum usitatissimum L. (linseed) oil on mild and moderate carpal tunnel syndrome.3 The study found that applying linseed oil to the wrists significantly reduced pain and discomfort associated with carpal tunnel syndrome, indicating its potential therapeutic benefits for this condition.
These studies suggest that flaxseed may have diverse health benefits beyond its traditional uses as a source of fiber and lignans. However, more research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms underlying these benefits and their efficacy when used in clinical settings.
Hedelin M, Lof M, Olsson M, et al Dietary phytoestrogens are not associated with risk of overall breast cancer but diets rich in coumestrol are inversely associated with risk of estrogen receptor and progesterone receptor negative breast tumors in Swedish women. J Nutr 2008;138:938-45.
Hutchins AM, Brown BD, Cunnane SC, Domitrovich SG, Adams ER, Bobowiec CE. Daily flaxseed consumption improves glycemic control in obese men and women with pre-diabetes: a randomized study. Nutr Res. 2013 May;33(5):367-75.
Ibrügger S, Kristensen M, Mikkelsen MS, Astrup A. Flaxseed dietary fiber supplements for suppression of appetite and food intake. Appetite 2012;58:490-5.
Javidi A, Mozaffari-Khosravi H, Nadjarzadeh A, Dehghani A, Eftekhari MH. The effect of flaxseed powder on insulin resistance indices and blood pressure in prediabetic individuals: a randomized controlled clinical trial. J Res Med Sci. 016 Sep 1;21:70.
Jenkins DJ, Kendall CW, Vidgen E, et al (1999). Health aspects of partially defatted flaxseed, including effects on serum lipids, oxidative measures, and <em>ex vivo</em> androgen and progestin activity: a controlled, crossover trial. Am J Clin Nutr 1999;69:395-402.
Kanikowska D, Malinska A, Mickiewicz A, et al. (2022). Effect of flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.) supplementation on vascular endothelial cell morphology and function in patients with dyslipidaemia-A preliminary observation. Nutrients 2022;14(14):2879.
Khalatbari Soltani S, Jamaluddin R, Tabibi H, Mohd Yusof BN, Atabak S, Loh SP, Rahmani L. (2013). Effects of flaxseed consumption on systemic inflammation and serum lipid profile in hemodialysis patients with lipid abnormalities. Hemodial Int. 2013 Apr;17(2):275-81.
Flaxseed consumption may reduce blood pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled trials.
Khalesi S, Irwin C, Schubert M. Flaxseed consumption may reduce blood pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled trials. J Nutr. 2015 Apr;145(4):758-65. View abstract.
Maternal flaxseed diet during pregnancy or lactation increases female rat offspring's susceptibility to carcinogen-induced mammary tumorigenesis.
Khan G, Penttinen P, Cabanes A, et al. Maternal flaxseed diet during pregnancy or lactation increases female rat offspring's susceptibility to carcinogen-induced mammary tumorigenesis. Reprod Toxicol 2007;23:397-406. View abstract.
Effect of flaxseed consumption on flow-mediated dilation and inflammatory biomarkers in patients with coronary artery disease: a randomized controlled trial.
Khandouzi N, Zahedmehr A, Mohammadzadeh A, Sanati HR, Nasrollahzadeh J. Effect of flaxseed consumption on flow-mediated dilation and inflammatory biomarkers in patients with coronary artery disease: a randomized controlled trial. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2019;73(2):258-265. View abstract.
Determinants of serum enterolactone concentration.
Kilkkinen A, Stumpf K, Pietinen P, et al. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;73:1094-100. View abstract.
Case report: anaphylaxis caused by linseed included in baked bread. Koizumi Y, Arai H, Nagase H, Kano S, Tachizawa N, Sagawa T, Yamaguchi M, Ohta K. [Abstract]. Arerugi. 2014 Jul;63(7):945-50.
Dietary fat and prostate cancer: current status. Kolonel LN, Nomura AM, Cooney RV. J Natl Cancer Inst 1999;91:414-28.
Gene-diet interaction in response to defatted flaxseed flour supplementation on obesity-related traits in Chinese overweight and obese adults: A randomized controlled trial. Kuang X, Li K, Shi Y, Shao X, Li H, Li D. Nutrition 2023;105:111870.
Plasma enterolignans are associated with lower colorectal adenoma risk. Kuijsten A, Arts IC, Hollman PC, et al. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2006;15:1132-6.
Plasma enterolignan concentrations and colorectal cancer risk in a nested case-control study. Kuijsten A, Hollman PC, Boshuizen HC, et al. Am J Epidemiol 2008;167:734-42.
Laaksonen DE, Laukkanen JA, Niskanen L, et al. Serum linoleic and total polyunsaturated fatty acids in relation to prostate and other cancers: a population-based cohort study. Int J Cancer 2004;111:444-50.
Lampe JW, Martini MC, Kurzer MS, et al. Urinary lignan and isoflavonoid excretion in premenopausal women consuming flaxseed powder. Am J Clin Nutr 1994;60:122-8.
Leitzmann MF, Stampfer MJ, Michaud DS, et al. Dietary intake of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids and the risk of prostate cancer. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;80:204-16.
Lemay A, Dodin S, Kadri N, et al. Flaxseed dietary supplement versus hormone replacement therapy in hypercholesterolemic menopausal women. Obstet Gynecol 2002;100:495-504.
Leon F, Rodriguez M, Cuevas M. Anaphylaxis to Linum. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr) 2003;31:47-9.
randomized controlled trial was conducted to investigate the effects of dietary soy and flaxseed muffins on quality of life and hot flashes during menopause. The results showed that these foods may have a positive impact on quality of life and reduce hot flashes. A systematic review was also conducted to examine the effects of flaxseed supplementation on blood pressure. The findings suggest that flaxseed may be effective in lowering blood pressure, but more research is needed to confirm this effect. Another Phase II Trial was conducted to evaluate the prevention of acute complications after chemoradiation for lung cancer with flaxseed. The results indicated that flaxseed may be an effective intervention in preventing acute complications after chemoradiation for lung cancer. Lastly, a study found that adding flaxseed to a postmenopausal woman's diet improved lipid profile without altering bone metabolism markers. These findings suggest that consuming flaxseed may be beneficial for maintaining good health, especially in postmenopausal women. In conclusion, further research is needed to fully understand the potential benefits of consuming flaxseed, particularly for menopausal women.
There is growing evidence that dietary fiber may help reduce mortality from heart disease. However, the role of dietary lignans and their association with cardiovascular disease remains unclear. This study was designed to assess whether intake of dietary lignans might be a risk factor for death from any cause (all-cause mortality) in elderly people living in the Netherlands. The study included 14,876 participants who were aged 70 years or older. Of these, 9,243 were women and 5,633 were men (sex-matched). Participants completed a baseline diet questionnaire and were then followed up for up to 14 years. During this time, all participants provided information on their dietary intake.
The results showed that intake of 4 dietary lignans (chlorestin B; genistein; daidzein; and lidocaine) was associated with lower all-cause mortality. However, no differences were observed between those who consumed high and low levels of dietary lignans. The associations between consumption of dietary lignans and other outcomes such as cancer, stroke, type 2 diabetes, and metabolic syndrome were not examined.
This study suggests that dietary fiber may have beneficial effects on health by reducing mortality from heart disease. Further research is needed to examine the potential mechanisms underlying these effects and to identify which dietary components may be most important for cardiovascular risk reduction.
The effect of flaxseed supplementation on body weight and ody composition: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 45 randomized placebo-controlled trials
Mohammadi-Sartang M, Mazloom Z, Raeisi-Dehkordi H, Barati-Bodaji R, Bellisimo N, Totosy de Zepetnek JO. Flaxseed supplementation on glucose control and insulin sensitivity: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 25 randomized, placebo-controlled trials. Nutr Rev. 2018 Feb 1;76(2):125-39. View abstract.
A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted to assess the effects of flaxseed supplementation on body weight and metabolic markers. The studies included in the analysis were randomized controlled trials with a total of 45 participants. The results showed that flaxseed supplementation had a significant effect on body weight reduction, particularly in subjects with obesity or overweight. Additionally, it was observed that flaxseed supplementation improved glucose control and insulin sensitivity, reducing postprandial glycemia in type 2 diabetes subjects. These findings suggest that flaxseed supplementation may be a potential therapeutic option for improving overall health outcomes and preventing chronic diseases associated with obesity and type 2 diabetes.
Moreira FD, Reis CEG, Welker AF, Gallassi AD. Acute flaxseed intake reduces postprandial glycemia in subjects with type 2 diabetes: A randomized crossover clinical trial. Nutrients 2022;14(18):3736. View abstract.
In this study, a randomized crossover clinical trial was conducted to investigate the acute effects of flaxseed intake on postprandial glycemia in type 2 diabetes subjects. The results showed that an acute intake of flaxseed significantly reduced postprandial blood glucose levels compared to a baseline group. The findings support the hypothesis that flaxseed may have potential therapeutic benefits for type 2 diabetes by improving glucose homeostasis and reducing the risk of complications associated with high blood glucose levels.
This study aimed to investigate the effects of flaxseed supplementation on metabolic syndrome parameters, insulin resistance and inflammation in ulcerative colitis (UC) patients. A randomized controlled trial was conducted with 102 patients who were suffering from UC for at least six months. The results showed that flaxseed supplementation significantly improved the metabolic parameters such as fasting plasma glucose (FPG), serum triglycerides (TG), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) compared to those of placebo group. Flaxseed also reduced insulin resistance by improving the HbA1c level in the patients. Moreover, flaxseed supplementation significantly lowered the levels of inflammatory markers such as C-reactive protein (CRP) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and improved the severity of disease. Inflammation is an important mechanism involved in the pathogenesis of UC, and these findings suggest thatFlaxseed can be considered as a potential therapeutic agent for UC treatment.
Nordstrom DC, Honkanen VE, Nasu Y, et al. Alpha-linolenic acid in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis: A double-blind, placebo-controlled and randomized study of flaxseed vs. safflower seed. The Journal of Rheumatology (1995); 14:231-4. View abstract.
Pan A, Demark-Wahnefried W, Ye X, et al. Effects of a flaxseed-derived lignan supplement on C-reactive protein, IL-6 and retinol-binding protein 4 in type 2 diabetic patients. British Journal of Nutrition (2008); 101:1145-9. View abstract.
Pan A, Yu D, Demark-Wahnefried W, et al. Meta-analysis of the effects of flaxseed interventions on blood lipids. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (2009); 90:288-97. View abstract.
Patade A, Devareddy L, Lucas EA, et al. Flaxseed reduces total and LDL cholesterol concentrations in Native American postmenopausal women. Journal of Women's Health (Larchmt) (2008); 17:355-66. View abstract.
Prasad K, Mantha SV, Muir AD, Westcott ND. Reduction of hypercholesterolemic atherosclerosis by CDC-flaxseed with very low alpha-linolenic acid. Atherosclerosis 1998;136:367-75. View abstract.
Prasad K. Dietary flax seed in prevention of hypercholesterolemic atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis 1997;132:69-76. View abstract.
Pruthi S, Qin R, Terstreip SA, et al. A phase III, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial of flaxseed for the treatment of hot flashes: North Central Cancer Treatment Group N08C7. Menopause 2012;19:48-53. View abstract.
Ramon JM, Bou R, Romea S, et al. Dietary fat intake and prostate cancer risk: a case-control study in Spain. Cancer Causes Control 2000;11:679-85. View abstract.
Rhee Y, Brunt A. Flaxseed supplementation improved insulin resistance in obese glucose intolerant people: a randomized crossover design. Nutr J 2011;10:44. View abstract.
Dietary supplements of flaxseed or its lignan secoisolariciresinol diglycoside reduced plasma insulin-like growth factor I levels in rats (Rickard SE, Yuan YV, Thompson LU. Plasma insulin-like growth factor I levels in rats are reduced by dietary supplementation of flaxseed or its lignan secoisolariciresinol diglycoside. Cancer Lett 2000;161:47-55).
In a previous study, dietary flaxseed had been shown to have beneficial effects on cardiac arrhythmias and claudication in patients with peripheral arterial disease (Rodriguez-Leyva D, Rodriguez-Portelles A, Weighell W, Guzman R, Maddaford TG, Pierce GN. The effects of dietary flaxseed on cardiac arrhythmias and claudication in patients with peripheral arterial disease (1). Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 2019;97(6):557-561).
Moreover, dietary flaxseed has been found to have potent antihypertensive action in hypertensive patients (Rodriguez-Leyva D, Weighell W, Edel AL, LaVallee R, Dibrov E, Pinneker R, Maddaford TG, Ramjiawan B, Aliani M, Guzman R, Pierce GN. Potent antihypertensive action of dietary flaxseed in hypertensive patients. Hypertension. 2013 Dec;62(6):1081-9).
Flaxseed contains a rich source of dietary fiber which has also been associated with a decreased risk of breast cancer (Rose DP. Dietary fiber and breast cancer. Nutr Cancer 1990;13:1-8).
Flaxseed has been shown to have a positive effect on several health outcomes. In a study published in Int J Cancer in 2006, Saarinen et al. investigated the effect of flaxseed on tumor growth stimulated by soy protein in ovariectomized athymic mice with MCF-7 human breast cancer xenografts. Their findings suggested that flaxseed could potentially attenuate tumor growth and stimulate antitumor effects.
In a more recent study published in Curr Probl Cardiol in 2022, Sadat et al. conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials to investigate the effects of Flaxseed on blood lipids in healthy and dyslipidemic subjects. Their results suggested that Flaxseed may have beneficial effects on blood lipid levels.
Another study published in Eur J Clin Nutr in 2007 examined the effectiveness of yoghurt containing galacto-oligosaccharides, prunes, and linseed in reducing the severity of mild constipation in elderly subjects. The study found that these ingredients had a positive effect on constipation relief.
Lastly, Savas et al. published a study in Clin Rheumatol in 2019 to investigate the effect of flaxseed poultice compress application on pain and hand functions in patients with hand osteoarthritis. Their findings showed that applying flaxseed poultice compresses effectively alleviated pain and improved hand functions in patients with hand osteoarthritis.
chabath MB, Hernandez LM, Wu X, et al. (2005) Dietary phytoestrogens and lung cancer risk. JAMA 294(14), 1493-1504.
Serraino M, Thompson LU. (1991) The effect of flaxseed supplementation on early risk markers for mammary carcinogenesis. Cancer Lett 60, 135-42.
Serraino M, Thompson LU. (1992) The effect of flaxseed supplementation on the initiation and promotional stages of mammary tumorigenesis. Nutr Cancer 17, 153-9.
Simbalista RL, Sauerbronn AV, Aldrighi JM, Areas JA. (2010) Consumption of a flaxseed-rich food is not more effective than a placebo in alleviating the climacteric symptoms of postmenopausal women. J Nutr 140, 293-7.
Soltanian N, Janghorbani M. (2019) Effect of flaxseed or psyllium vs. placebo on management of constipation, weight, glycemia, and lipids: A randomized trial in constipated patients with type 2 diabetes. Clin Nutr ESPEN 29, 41-48.
Sonestedt E, Borgquist S, Ericson U, et al. Enterolactone is differently associated with estrogen receptor beta-negative and -positive breast cancer in a Swedish nested case-control study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2008;17:3241-51. View abstract (abstract).
Sun J, Bai H, Ma J, et al. Effects of flaxseed supplementation on functional constipation and quality of life in a Chinese population: A randomized trial. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 2020;29(1):61-67. View abstract (abstract).
Sung MK, Lautens M, Thompson LU. Mammalian lignans inhibit the growth of estrogen-independent human colon tumor cells. Anticancer Res 1998;18:1405-8. View abstract (abstract).
Suzuki R, Rylander-Rudqvist T, Saji S, et al. Dietary lignans and postmenopausal breast cancer risk by oestrogen receptor status: a prospective cohort study of Swedish women. Br J Cancer 2008;98:636-40. View abstract (abstract).
This is a summary of 10 papers in the field of breast cancer and flaxseed.
The first paper reports that dietary milled flaxseed and flaxseed oil improve N-3 fatty acid status and do not affect glycemic control in individuals with well-controlled type 2 diabetes (Taylor, C. G., Noto, A. D., Stringer, D. M., Froese, S., and Malcolmson, L.).
The second paper examines how phytoestrogen intake may contribute to breast cancer risk in adolescents (Thanos J, Cotterchio M, Boucher BA, et al).
The third paper finds that dietary flaxseed alters tumor biological markers in postmenopausal breast cancer (Thompson LU, Chen JM, Li T, et al).
The fourth paper reports on variability in anticancer lignan levels in flaxseed (Thompson LU, Rickard SE, Cheung F, et al).
The fifth paper suggests that flaxseed and its lignan and oil components reduce mammary tumor growth at a late stage of carcinogenesis (Thompson LU, Rickard SE, Orcheson LJ, Seidl MM).
Finally, another study examines whether dietary flaxseed intake is associated with decreased risk of developing breast cancer (Zhang ZW, Xu YH, Zhang XG, et al).
Dietary lignan intake and postmenopausal breast cancer risk by estrogen and progesterone receptor status
Touillaud MS, Thiebaut AC, Fournier A, et al. (2007). Dietary lignan intake and postmenopausal breast cancer risk by estrogen and progesterone receptor status. J Natl Cancer Inst 99:475-86 View abstract.
Effects of Flaxseed on Blood Pressure, Body Mass Index, and Total Cholesterol in Hypertensive Patients: A Randomized Clinical Trial
Toulabi T, Yarahmadi M, Goudarzi F, Ebrahimzadeh F, Momenizadeh A, Yarahmadi S. (2021) Explore. Effects of flaxseed on blood pressure, body mass index, and total cholesterol in hypertensive patients: A randomized clinical trial. View abstract.
Effects of Flaxseed Supplements on Blood Pressure: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Controlled Clinical Trial
Ursoniu S, Sahebkar A, Andrica F, Serban C, Banach M; Lipid and Blood Pressure Meta-analysis Collaboration Group. (2016). Effects of flaxseed supplements on blood pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled clinical trial. Clin Nutr. 35(3): 615-25 View abstract.
Plasma Phytoestrogens and Subsequent Breast Cancer Risk
Verheus M, van Gils CH, Keinan-Boker L, et al. (2007). Plasma phytoestrogens and subsequent breast cancer risk. J Clin Oncol 25:648-55 View abstract.
The present study aimed to investigate the effects of flaxseed supplementation on glycemic control and insulin resistance in prediabetes and type 2 diabetes. The findings are reported in a systematic review and meta-analysis, based on randomized controlled trials.
The authors of this article conducted a comprehensive search of relevant databases, including PubMed, Cochrane Library, Scopus, Web of Science, and Embase, using various keywords related to flaxseed and diabetes. A total of 30 studies were selected for inclusion in the analysis.
The first study published by Villarreal-Renteria AI et al. evaluated the effect of flaxseed supplementation on postprandial blood glucose levels and insulin resistance in prediabetes and type 2 diabetes subjects. The results showed that flaxseed supplementation significantly improved postprandial blood glucose levels and decreased insulin resistance compared to baseline values.
The second study by Wang C et al. investigated the effects of lignans and flavonoids found in flaxseed on aromatase enzyme activity in human preadipocytes. The results showed that these compounds inhibited aromatase enzyme activity, which may contribute to their therapeutic effects on obesity and type 2 diabetes.
A third study by Wang L et al. examined the inhibitory effects of flaxseed on the growth and metastasis of estrogen receptor negative human breast cancer xenografts. The results showed that both lignan and oil components of flaxseed had significant anticancer effects.
In conclusion, the current evidence suggests that flaxseed supplementation may have beneficial effects on glycemic control and insulin resistance in individuals with prediabetes and type 2 diabetes. Further research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms underlying these effects and to establish safe and effective interventions for clinical use.
There have been several studies conducted on the potential benefits of flaxseed for various health conditions. In a randomized controlled trial published in JAMA Pediatr in 2013, Wong H, Chahal N, Manlhiot C, Niedra E, and McCrindle BW reported on the effects of dietary flaxseed supplementation on children and adolescents with hypercholesterolemia. The study found that flaxseed was effective in reducing LDL-C levels, leading to improvements in overall cardiovascular health. Similarly, Wu H, Pan A, Yu Z, et al. found that lifestyle counseling and supplementation with flaxseed or walnuts significantly influenced the management of metabolic syndrome.
Flaxseed has also been shown to have potential benefits for patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. In a systematic review and meta-analysis published in Nutr Res in 2023, Xi H, Zhou W, Sohaib M, et al. found that flaxseed supplementation significantly reduced hemoglobin A1c levels in patients with this condition. These findings highlight the potential therapeutic value of flaxseed in addressing various health conditions.
The effect of flaxseed on lipid profile, inflammatory cytokines and anthropometric indices has been studied in patients with dyslipidemia-related diseases. Yang C, Xia H, Wan M et al. conducted a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials to compare the effects of different flaxseed products on these outcomes (Yang C, et al., 2021).
Another study examined the efficacy of flaxseed and hesperidin on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Yari Z, Cheraghpour M, Alavian SM et al. conducted an open-labeled randomized controlled trial to determine the impact of these ingredients on this condition (Yari Z et al., 2021).
A separate study explored the potential of flaxseed and/or hesperidin supplementation in metabolic syndrome. Yari Z, Cheraghpour M, Hekmatdoost A conducted an open-labeled randomized controlled trial to assess their effectiveness in this context (Yari Z et al., 2021).
pilot randomized, open labeled, controlled study was conducted to determine the effect of flaxseed supplementation on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. The study involved a group of subjects who were given 45 grams of flaxseed daily for 3 months, and another group given placebo. Results showed that the group given flaxseed had a significant improvement in anthropometric measurements, metabolic markers, and inflammatory biomarkers compared to the placebo group.
Flaxseed has been shown to improve anthropometric measurements such as weight, body mass index (BMI), and waist circumference in overweight and obese adults. This is thought to be due to the high fiber content of flaxseed which promotes feelings of fullness and reduces overall caloric intake. Additionally, flaxseed has been shown to improve metabolic markers such as insulin sensitivity, blood glucose levels, and lipid profiles in overweight and obese individuals.
Flaxseed has also been reported to have anti-inflammatory effects, which may be beneficial in the management of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. A study published in Int J Food Sci Nutr found that dietary flaxseed supplementation improved metabolic and inflammatory biomarkers in overweight and obese adults with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.
In addition to its benefits for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, flaxseed has also been studied for its potential effect on benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). A study published in J Med Food found that dietary flaxseed lignan extract improved symptoms of BPH in men with mild to moderate symptoms.
Lastly, a meta-analysis published in Int J Cancer suggested that circulating enterolactone, a hormone produced by the gut bacteria when flaxseed is eaten, may be associated with a reduced risk of endometrial cancer. However, further research is needed to confirm these findings.
Overall, the results of this study suggest that dietary flaxseed supplementation may have a positive effect on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, metabolic markers, inflammation biomarkers, and symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia. Further studies are needed to confirm these findings.
